Genetic and Molecular Biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hereditary and Molecular Biology - Essay Example The chromosome hypothesis on legacy said that Chromosomes are two by two and qualities, or their alleles, are situated on the chromosomes. 4. Every one of a few Alternative types of a Gene is called an Allele. Letters are utilized to speak to Alleles: Capital Letters allude to a Dominant Allele that covers or shrouds articulation of a latent allele. Lowercase Letters allude to a Recessive Allele its demeanor is conceal by a predominant allele. Truly, it is feasible for multiple alleles of a quality to exist. 5. Researchers slowly found out about DNA in an inquisitively turned manner that is basic in science. For a certain something, the disclosure of DNA required advancement on three separate fronts: cytology (the investigation of cells through a magnifying instrument), hereditary qualities, and science. Researchers chipping away at DNA in the mid 1950s utilized the expression quality to mean the littlest unit of hereditary data, however they didn't have the foggiest idea what a quality really resembled basically and artificially, or how it was replicated, with not many blunders, a great many ages. In any case, numerous researchers kept on accepting that DNA had a structure excessively uniform and easy to store hereditary data for making complex living beings. The hereditary material, they contemplated, must comprise of proteins, substantially more different and mind boggling atoms known to play out a large number of natural capacities in the cell. 6. Quality is a genetic unit comprising of a grouping of DNA that possesses a particular area on a chromosome and decides a specific trademark in a creature. A chromosome is a gathering of looped strands of DNA, containing numerous qualities. 7. Each strand of DNA is a chain of substance building squares, called nucleotides, of which there are four sorts: adenine (truncated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These permissible base parts of nucleic acids can be polymerized in any

Apple Swot

Apple SWOT In the 2011 Fortune 500 rankings Apple completed 35th, hopping from the 56th position it set up the prior year. As of January 2012 Apple outperformed Exxon to turn into the biggest Corporation on the planet. Apple’s quick move from virtual liquidation in 1996 is an inconceivable story. (Eberhard) Strengths: The items The organization's notoriety for being a trailblazer Strong, faithful after Control over applications and working frameworks Brand AwarenessWeaknesses †Apple's â€Å"All In† theory has a few downsides †for instance, my Windows telephone won't sync on my Macbook. This apparent â€Å"if you're not one of us, you are one of them† outlook makes new believers to Apple items watchful. Apple doesn't â€Å"fail† frequently however when they do it stands out as truly newsworthy. Apple Maps served to show how enormous of a bumble one Apple marked disappointment can truly be. (Goldman). The absence of thinking ahead into the iPad.No matter how extraordinary of a triumph †and it surely is †Microsoft's Surface's screen size and incorporation of USB ports and a console is going to make the up and coming age of the iMac †which could in all likelihood be a very accused iPad of all the necessary ports and another OS †make Apple seem as though it is playing get up to speed as opposed to driving the advancement themselves. Shut source applications and working framework Brand apparent as â€Å"elitist† Diversity of items Cost of item versus contenders Over immersion (iPhone)Opportunities †Apple is preparing a Pandora like gushing music administration and Apple TV could change the manner in which we see our programing much similarly the iPod and iTunes upset the music business. Music gushing assistance Apple TV Shifting more creation to US processing plants The Chinese Market yet to be completely tapped Integration with automakers Threats †Basically each and every individual who isnâ €™t Apple †Google/Android, Microsoft/Windows 8, Samsung, the rundown goes on †in the event that you plug it in and talk, listen contact, type, or surf on it and is anything but an Apple, it is a danger to Apple.Apple's dangers originate from all bearings since Apple not just delivers item, it likewise delivers the entirety of the working frameworks for it's item and firmly controls what content outside merchants can sell on the App Store. Changes in economy Changes in commercial center Chinese work debates Google's Android OS Microsoft's Windows 8 and Surface tablet Windows retail locations http://www. substantial. com/news/2012/12/google-maps-comes back to-iphone/http://robeberhard. com/? page_id=130 Samsung SWOT Samsung was established in 1938 as a fish and vegetable food merchant. After the Korean War, Samsung's benefits were stripped and the basic food item business was laid to rest.In 1969 SEC, the Samsung Electronic Corporation was made, starting the Samsung as w e probably am aware them today. Samsung now creates TVs, cell phones, tablet PCs, DVD and Blu-Ray players, MP3 players, cameras and semiconductors. Throughout the years as they procured new business and spread out into new pursuits they have been dependent upon an assortment of claims including copyright encroachment, incorporating those with watchmaker Rolex, cell phone producer Ericsson and most as of late Apple Computer. Apple as of late outperformed Samsung to take the main spot in marketshare in the cell phone class. Tinari) Samsung's organization with Google has given a reliable OS (working framework) for it's cell phones with Android. Android is a â€Å"open source† working framework, which, in contrast to Apple's, takes into account outsider clients to straightforwardly contribute application and projects without organization impedance or oversight. While this gives clients a more extensive assortment of utilizations, there is no quality authority over them, nor is th ere a path for Samsung to give the client assistance regularly expected of these applications as Samsung has no part in their creation and distribution.Samsung as of late won one of numerous claims with Apple over the plan of their well known Galaxy tablet. The as of late discharged Microsoft Surface tablet and the Kindle Fire are Samsung's biggest non-Apple rivalry in this market, anyway there are various very minimal effort tablets coming out of China that are likewise depending on the Android OS. These ease, low quality tablets are compelling Samsung to publicize all the more forcefully to guarantee they are not lumped into this sub gathering of iPad thump offs. Qualities: Wide scope of items Multiple organizations with different brands, especially Google and their Android working framework Growing marketshareHigh brand esteem Open source working framework Weaknesses: Lack of command over item once it's accomplices become included Slow to discharge new item Lack of spotlight on o ne center item Lower value implies lower apparent quality Complaints of not being â€Å"user friendly† Opportunities: Open all the more retail outlets Partnership with new brands implies more advancement Reintroduce telephones with more easy to understand interface Capitalize on Apple's disappointments Provide more client assistance Threats: Continuing fight in court with Apple over copyright encroachment Low cost rivalry in the tablet marketEmulation telephones with Android OS debilitate Samsung's picture Microsoft's Surface tablet Windows Retail stores Changes in commercial center Changes in economy picture: www. businessweek. com picture: www. talkandroid. com picture: www. obamapacman. com http://www. intomobile. com/2013/02/01/apple-gets 34-versatile piece of the overall industry passing-samsung-become-1/http://www. businessweek. com/articles/2012-07-03/samsungs-cell phone pitch-powers versatile promotion blast http://www. talkandroid. com/154223-samsung-sloped up-public izing in-2012-outspent-apple-by-68-million/http://obamapacman. com/2010/11/come up short samsung-cosmic system tab-streak spring up-advertisement irritates cnn-clients/

The Definition of Pro Bono in Law

The Definition of Pro Bono in Law Every day, people commit crimes. On the other hand, some fall victim of crimes or false accusations. No matter the situation, people need legal services daily.However, not everyone can afford to pay lawyers. Many people end up on the side of injustice just because theyre poor.That’s why pro bono work is vital in the legal profession.This practice is common with lawyers.In fact, 55% of attorneys provided pro bono services in 2017, according to the Ohio Legal Assistance Foundation. Source: OlafWHAT IS PRO BONO?Pro bono is the short version of the Latin phrase pro bono publico. This phrase means “for the public good.”In simple terms, pro bono work is the service a professional renders to an individual without any compensation before or after offering the service.Even though pro bono is applicable to all professions, the term is popularly used in the legal profession.Offering pro bono legal services starts from the time an individual is a law student to when a lawyer has been called to bar and is practicing.The American Bar Associations Model Rule 6.1 states that every lawyer “has a professional responsibility to provide legal services to those unable to pay.”According to the American Bar Association:“pro bono legal services are personally performed, without charge or expectation of fee, to persons of limited means or organizations that serve persons of limited means.” From this definition, free legal service offered with the aim of turning the client into a paying client in the future is not a pro bono service.Likewise, a legal service carried out with an expectation to get paid at the beginning but changing your mind later cant be classified as pro bono.Another exception is legal services provided to friends and family as a favor.Often, the people concerned are able to pay and this is not regarded as pro bono work.In most cases, theres no fixed number of hours that a lawyer must use for pro bono services.There are many suggestions though.For example, the American Bar Association recommends that every lawyer should offer at least 50 hours of pro bono services annually.There are also different recommendations of the same, higher, or lower number of hours in different state bars.Another way a lawyer can contribute to the pro bono work is to support lawyers or legal clinics that offer these services.The reality in many big firms is that most lawyers fail to do pro bono work.And for those that do, they spend far less than the recom mended number of hours yearly.One of the reasons for this is that most of the big law firms make no provision for pro bono work.In cases where theres a provision for it, associates are not encouraged to do pro bono work as they want to rack up the number of their billed hours as high as possible.This means as lawyers are trying to bill as many hours as possible to get promoted and go up the ladder in their law firms, the public good is often neglected.According to a survey of 47,000 attorneys in 24 states by the American Bar Associations Standing Committee on Pro Bono and Public Service, almost 1 out of 5 attorneys had never done pro bono work of any kind. Source: AmericanBarAccording to attorneys, the top 3 sources of discouragement are lack of time, personal or family obligations, and lack of skills or experience.PRO BONO WORK AS A LAW STUDENTPro bono services should begin while an individual is studying law.Many schools have different policies and requirements regarding the amount of pro bono work a student should engage in.A requirement for a law student doing pro bono legal services is that they have to do it under the supervision of an attorney.This means an attorney would guide and evaluate the student.They’ll also review the student’s work before it’s provided to a client.Likewise, pro bono work for a law student is usually done during the academic year.Different states have different requirements of pro bono hours before a graduate law student is called to bar.Some states require a number of pro bono hours while some have no requirements regarding pro bono work.For instance, the New York State Court requires applicants i nto the New York State bar to have completed 50 hours of pro bono work.When law students get engaged in pro bono work, they’re more likely to provide these services when they graduate and become practicing lawyers.PRO BONO WORK IN LAW FIRMSLaw students are expected to carry out pro bono work before they complete their studies and are called to the bar.This practice is expected to continue when a lawyer is called to bar.Many lawyers seek to work in law firms after their graduation to gain more experience and consequently build their legal career.In most cases, whether a lawyer will get involved in pro bono cases may depend on the culture of their law firm.Its easier for a lawyer to do pro bono work if their law firm makes a provision or has a department for pro bono services.Otherwise, its difficult for a lawyer to get involved in pro bono work.If one of the main aims of a lawyer is to bill as many hours of work as possible, their last line of thought will be pro bono work.Many new associates, especially in big law firms, go through a lot of stress for years before they can go up the ladder in their law firms.Whether they climb up or not may also be tied to the number of hours they bill.Therefore, many lawyers may be more focused on clients that are able to pay for legal services rather than those that are unable to pay.In some cases, a law firm might prevent the use of the firm’s resources for pro bono cases.Likewise, in a firm that disallows lawyers from doing pro bono services during business hours or places restrictions on the number of pro bono clients a lawyer can take, only a few lawyers will do more pro bono legal services.However, in law firms that require lawyers to carry out a number of hours of pro bono services, lawyers will get involved more in the service.Other activities a law firm can engage in to encourage its lawyers to do pro bono work include having a pro bono manager, having a policy that supports employee pro bono tasks, allowing pro bono work to be done during business hours, identifying and referring pro bono work to lawyers, etc.AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SURVEYFor pro bono services, most lawyers provide services that are related to their areas of specialization. In the American Bar Associations survey, 69% of attorneys took a pro bono case that was within their area of expertise.This makes sense as its easier to help people in an area of law that a lawyer is familiar with.When lawyers take pro bono cases out of their area of expertise, it was usually in the area of military, immigration, housing, civil rights, and public benefits.When lawyers took on pro bono cases, it was usually consistent with their expectations before taking the case.71% of attorneys claimed that their pro bono cases went the way they expected it to.The expectations are usually in the form of the time spent on the case and the complexity of the case.In a way, their prediction is often accurate because most lawyers are doing pro bono works in their area of expertise.NUMBER OF PRO BONO HOURSIn 2016, attorneys who did pro bono legal services spent an average of 36.9 hours.This is far lower than the ABA’s recommendation. One of the factors responsible for this is that many lawyers fail to take on full representation of clients when they offer pro bono services.More than half (54.6%) of attorneys only provided limited scope representation and they spent an average of 16.4 hours on each case.Generally, attorneys who provided limited scope representation had a lower number of hours of pro bono work.For instance, attorneys who only provided limited scope representation for pro bono work had an average of 40.1 hours of the work in 2016.Meanwhile, attorneys who provided only full representation had an average of 81.8 hours of pro bono service in the year.However, attorneys who combined both types of representation had the highest number of hours of pro bono work among attorneys.These lawyers had an average of 114.2 hours of work in the year. Source: AmericanBarAdded to this, 48% of attorneys did not undertake pro bono services that year. This is almost 1 out of 2 attorneys.It shows that many lawyers would rather fill their time with paying work than working for a client who has no money.Only 20% of attorneys provided more than 50 hours of pro bono services to clients in 2016.This is a low portion of the members of the legal profession considering how important this step is to society.However, when attorneys decide to take pro bono works, they usually take on cases of individuals rather than organizations. 81.3% of attorneys who take cases claim they take individual cases.While offering pro bono legal services, lawyers carry out many tasks.Some of these include meeting and interviewing the client, reviewing or drafting legal documents, writing letters, providing advice, speaking with other attorneys, providing full representation in court, negotiating settlements with other parties, etc.The most common activities carried out by lawyers were providing advice to clients with 74.1% of lawyers who do pro bono work doing it.However, a far lower number of lawyers provided full representation to their clients in court with only 29% doing it. Source: AmericanBarThe most common area of law served by far in pro bono services was family law. 32% of cases with lawyers who offer full representation and 19% of those who offered limited scope representation.Apart from this, other top areas for pro bono work were criminal, litigation, estate planning/probate, immigration, and real estate.The thing though, is that after family law, the popularity of each area differs according to whether attorneys carry out full representation or limited scope.ATTORNEY’S VIEW OF PRO BONO SERVICESIt is no surprise that lawyers see pro bono as an important part of the legal profession. In fact, 80.6% of attorneys believe that pro bono services are either somewhat or very important.But despite the majority of lawyers seeing it as an important endeavor, a far lower number actually want to provide the service.For example, only 45% claim they’re likely or very likely to carry out pro bono work in the next year while about a quarter claim they’re u nlikely or very unlikely to carry out such a task. Source: AmericanBarLawyers who participate in pro bono legal services have positive views of the service and this encourages them to do more of it.The most popular factors that encourage lawyers to take on pro bono cases are to help people in need, fulfill ethical obligations, and as a professional duty.The biggest motivators are the first two as lawyers feel empathetic to ensure justice is done for even people who are unable to pay legal fees.In many of these situations, the client would have lost a valuable possession without legal representation.Apart from motivating factors, there are also discouraging factors that reduce the number of hours attorneys are able to spend doing pro bono work.Lack of time is the biggest discouraging factor.There are other factors like lack of necessary skills or experience needed for the case, scheduling conflicts with potential court appearances, unrealistic expectations of clients, too costly, lack of information about opportunities, discouragement from employer/firm, etc.What is evident from these discouraging factors is that it comes from various quarters.Some are due to the lawyer, some client, and some the law firm.This shows there’s still a big room for improvement in terms of getting more lawyers to get involved in pro bono legal services.FINDING PRO BONO OPPORTUNITIESOne of the main challenges attorneys can face is finding clients for pro bono legal services.For instance, if you don’t meet people who are unable to pay for their legal services, how do you get involved in pro bono cases?The truth is that when there’s a will, there’s a way. Lawyers have found many ways to find pro bono clients.There are organizations that usually handle pro bono cases and attorneys reach out to these organizations to learn of suitable cases they can take.As a matter of fact, 45.4% of attorneys had contacted organizations regarding pro bono cases while 36.3% had contacted a legal aid or pro bono organization.18% of lawyers had cont acted their local bar association and 12.4% had contacted other organizations.In another way, attorneys are also contacted to take on pro bono cases. This is possible for a lawyer who had taken on pro bono cases in the past or has a relationship with a pro bono organization.47.5% of attorneys had been contacted by a legal aid or pro bono organization, 34% had been contacted by their local bar association, 29% had been contacted by their state bar association, and 21.3% had been contacted by other organizations.With these major ways of finding pro bono cases, an attorney can find relevant cases to their expertise.Initially, an attorney may have to reach out to some organizations to find pro bono cases. Subsequently, these organizations will usually contact the attorney when there are relevant cases.An attorney can also visit the pro bono center page on the American Bar Association website to get more information about pro bono services.CONCLUSIONThe legal profession aims to provide j ustice without any sign of partiality. But often, justice can be far-fetched for people who are unable to get adequate legal representation.This is why pro bono services are an avenue for lawyers to help people without any expectation of compensation. However, it’s too simplistic to say there’s no compensation.The biggest compensation of pro bono work is to be able to help a person in need get the justice they deserve.An attorney can feel satisfied that they’ve done the right thing. After all, the legal profession is not all about the amount of money you can make.Some lawyers get more satisfaction from pro bono work than their repetitive law firm work.In some cases, people who need pro bono services are fighting against bigger companies or entities that have enough money to bury their criminal acts.A lawyer can ensure that the helpless individual gets justice from the bigger entities. Pro bono work starts when an individual is a student at the law school.From here, the student can understand the importance of this practice and continue it when they get called to bar.Pro bono service is a practice that most lawyers see as important but that many are reluctant to do. It’s a service to the good of the people that any attorney must engage in.

Internet and Education Positive or Negative Aspect

Internet and Education: Positive or Negative Aspect? The Internet started to boom in the 1990’s and has continued to evolve ever since. Today the concept of what was thought to be one of the greatest inventions has blown this old-time invention out of the water. In order for the Internet to be accessible a computer device is needed. Today on we can carry the Internet in our hands with wireless access; as before it was a fixed machine usually on a desk with multiple cords attached. Noting that the invention of the computer and Internet has only increased in value and quality the rate of use has also increased significantly. This increase use of the Internet has affected and impacted people around the world. People use it at home, work and†¦show more content†¦This is only a small fraction of instructors and teachers around the world. Similar to Berger’s positive findings is a study conducted by Gwo-Jen Hwang, Po-Han Wu and Chi-Chang Chen. Their study addresses the topic of web-based problem-solving activities. According to the Hwang et al. (2012) study online web-based problem-solving games are found to be beneficial in education. In their study an online game was developed for conducting web-based learning activates (Hwang et al., 2012). Two classes of fifth and sixth graders participated in the study. One group was the experimental group while the other was the control group. The experimental group was guided by an educational computer game that used a Graphical Quiz approach to develop the game-board learning system, while the control group was guided by learning sheets and keyword search online (Hwang et al. 2012). Hwang et al. (2012) required both groups to take a pre-test and post-test regarding â€Å"butterfly ecology.† In result Hwang et al. (2012) reported the online-education game not only improved the students’ learning achievement and attitudes, but also situated the students’ in a learning state filled with involvement, concentration and enjoyment. The results also show how the approach was effective; the learning activity conducted in this study showed that students were highly motivated in their web-based problem-solving tasks (Hwang et al., 2012). Hwang et al. (2012) thus concludes thatShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Social Media On Society1359 Words   |  6 Pageseducational levels. Social media has had various contributions to the development of society on several aspects such as language and culture. These contributions brought both positive and negative results. This essay seeks to explore the positive effects of social media on the society. It is informed by the fact that social media, though inherently consisting of negative elements, has more positive benefits that it offers to the society. 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The media positively affects the American culture by the quick and easy flow of useful information and education, its major role in developments like fight against racism, fight against genderRead MorePresessional 2014The Use Of Elearning Is900 Words   |  4 Pagese-learning are that is can let learners gain knowledge and abilities from a variety countries on the Internet and it also overlaps all kinds of information and data in different courses. This research paper is divided into four parts. First is the background and the definition of e-l earning. Second is the positives aspects of e-learning of the English language learning. Third is the negative aspects of e-learning of the English language learning and the last is the effects of e-learning after its use

Telecommunication Principles Free Essay Example, 3250 words

If the two devices are located in distant places, this could mean that the data rate will be impaired. Similarly, short distances denote a strong network signal. With a strong signal, higher data transmission speeds will be experienced. Obstruction: obstacles to networks signals have been found to impair the data rates of the system. Walls, hills and other solid objects occurring in the way of transmission signals impair the speed of transmission. They slow down the signal and therefore reduce the transmission speed. Other obstacles may make it impossible for signals to penetrate, another setback to data rates. b) The Nyquist theorem: it is based on the assumption that noise is free. Nyquist provides the upper bound for the bit rate of a transmission system by determining the bit rate straight from the number of bits in a symbol and the bandwidth of the transmission system (assumption: 2 symbols/per cycle and first harmonic). In conclusion, it can be deducted that doubling the bandwidth doubles the data rate if only all other factors are equal. Shannon’s Theorem, on the other hand tries to determine the relationship between noise, data rate and error rate. We will write a custom essay sample on Telecommunication Principles or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now This theorem is used to determine the capacity of a signal transmission system in where noise is present. The variation between the two theorems is that when the Shannon theorem gives us the upper limit, the Nyquest theorem tells us how many signal levels we require. (i) The theoretical highest bit rate C = B log2 (1 + SNR) 3000 log2 (1 + 35) = (ii) The applicable bit rate and number of signal levels First we determine the highest bit rate C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1+ 63) = 6 Mbps This is the upper limit in accordance with the Shannon formula. For higher performance and efficiency, we will use a lower value, let us say 4Mbps. The Nyquest formula will give us the levels of signal as follows 4 Mbps = 2 Ãâ€" 1 MHz Ãâ€" log2 L L = 4 L02.4 Q 2: impairments and their effects Path loss This is described as the loss in signal strength as the network signals are transmitted through space. Path loss has been identified as a major channel impairment that springs from wave expansion in the free space as a result of increased sphere. Factors that contribute to path loss include: Reflection: this is described as the change in direction of waves as a result of interaction with another surface. The result of reflection is that the wave goes back to the transmitting device (source of transmission).

Knowledge Sharing Free Essays

Creating a knowledge sharing culture in organizations today is a norm. Please comment. The most valuable asset with any organization is intellectual capital i. We will write a custom essay sample on Knowledge Sharing or any similar topic only for you Order Now e knowledge. Hence it is inevitable for organizations to create, nurture and develop this asset to achieve sustainable advantage in the market. Organizations can leverage the power of knowledge and bring innovation in their product and service offerings, achieving higher customer satisfaction, higher revenues, profits etc. Ultimately it helps the organization meet its business objectives. A knowledge sharing culture encourages people to work together more effectively and collaborate to share information. It makes the organizational knowledge more productive. Hence creating a knowledge sharing culture has become a norm in organizations Why is sharing knowledge important? Can you list a few reasons? As mentioned earlier, the only sustainable competitive advantage is knowledge and continuous innovation. To achieve this, knowledge sharing is important.Today’s age is characterized by employees with high mobility. The concept of lifetime employment does not exist any longer. People change jobs for professional advancement and career growth. Hence when employees leave the organisation, their knowledge also walks out of the door with them. To retain the knowledge base within the organization, there has to be a knowledge sharing culture within the company. As more and more organizations operate in the global space, the boundaries of country, geography, culture etc cease to exist.The culture of knowledge sharing can ensure that expertise learnt and applied in one part of the organisation can be leveraged in another. The pace of change is accelerating, be it in technology, business or social. As things change our knowledge base erodes. Information becomes obsolete very soon and requires constant upgradation. Knowledge sharing comes to the rescue once again by not only conserving the knowledge base, but also upgrading the same What is the role of technology in sharing knowledge?Knowledge Management is fundamentally about people and information not technology. But there seems to be no way with which one can share knowledge effectively without using technology. This applies to small as well as large and geographically dispersed organizations. In the past it was impossible to share knowledge or work collaboratively with co-workers around the globe. But today, it is technology that has made knowledge sharing a reality. If implemented well and if people are trained in its use, knowledge sharing technology is good. Not only can you find the information and knowledge you need quickly and effectively but you can post your knowledge on the system for access by others in the organisation. Not only within the organization, web based advanced technology allows us to collaborate with anyone anywhere in the world to achieve our objectives. However, one must keep in mind that there are many pitfalls to the effective use of technology. Too much information, from a variety of sources, whether reliable or not leads to knowledge overflow. One must be able to use it diligently and carefully.Inculcating Innovation through Knowledge Sharing There are various opportunities provided to employees which enable them to come out with creative approaches and innovative ideas and share the same at an organizational platform. One such initiative was a contest to generate implementable innovative ideas in product/services, enhancements, process, and technology or in any other area that can lead to deliverable results. The best ideas were rewarded and suggested features/enhancements etc were implemented. This had a motivating effect on employees and ensured that they egularly come up with such solutions, thus keeping up the knowledge sharing culture.Such campaigns also lead to increased bonding motivation among the employees and encourage them to keep themselves updated, alert and conscious of various aspects of increasing efficiency effectiveness Open communication, exchange of dialogue, transparency in dealings, various formal and informal meetings, open house forums etc have inculcated the spirit of knowledge sharing within our organization. Thus the employees feel confident and motivated to contribute towards the growth of the organization. How to cite Knowledge Sharing, Papers

Conditioning Techniques in Clinical Practice and Research

Question: Discuss about the Conditioning Techniques in Clinical Practice and Research. Answer: Introduction: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation conceived for a particular phenomena that are to be tested for truthfulness. Researchers base hypotheses on observations acquired previously that had not led to satisfactory explanations. The hypothesis is different from a theory in all respect (Ly et al., 2016). Leary (2016) states that a hypothesis is the tentative statement about the relationship between the confounding variables. While the hypothesis is responsible for predicting the expectations of the research, the goal of the research is the determination of whether the hypothesis holds true or whether it is incorrect. According to Sterne (1840), it is the nature of a hypothesis that when an individual conceived it, that is assimilated every thing to itself as proper nourishment, and from the first moment of making it happen, the hypothesis usually grows stronger by everything that is seen, heard, read or understood. In the field of psychology, all significant researches have been known t o hold a clear stated hypothesis that has been tested for truthfulness. One of the most debated research in psychology is the one related to Classical Conditioning Theory of Ivan Pavlov that has thrown a valuable insight into the understanding of human behaviour. The research undertaken by Pavlov was based on a distinct hypothesis (Chilcott, 2015). In the present paper the hypothesis of Pavlovian Conditioning in psychology put forward by Ivan Pavlov, has been used to assess the degree to which individuals advancing it have treated the hypothesis in a manner how Stence have described it. The impact of such treatment for the hypothesis is also highlighted in the paper. Lastly, the paper also analyses the impact of such treatment for psychology. The paper ends with a conclusive summary of the whole discussion. Classical conditioning is a kind of mental conditioning that is associated with a previously neutral stimulus with the presence of an unconditional stimulus that elicits the desired response. It implies that a neutral stimulus is linked with an unconditioned stimulus for creating a response that should not have been created originally (Peter, 2014). The theory of classical conditioning had been put forward by Ivan Pavlov, a Russsian Scientist, who threw light upon the theory through his research. Pavlov was looking at salivation produced by dogs as a response to being fed. The people who were responsible for feeding the dogs wore lab coats while feeding. It was brought into his notice that the dogs drooled whenever they got a sight of the lab coats, even if food was not given to them. He noticed that the dogs used to salivate whenever he entered the room. This was true even in cases when the dogs were not fed by him. Pavlov started to generate the idea that the reflex of saliva had b een hardwired into the dogs. He, therefore, conducted an experiment to understand the phenomena more clearly that involved the dogs and food. The hypothesis of the study was that the dogs would respond to a neutral stimulus, and give a conditioned response. The sound of a bell was used as the neutral stimulus while linking it with other stimulus food. At the time of feeding the dogs, the bell was rung everytime. After repetition of the procedure, the researcher went into the room and rang only the bell without giving food. It was found that the salivation level of the dogs was increased when the bell was rung. The dogs were found to have learnt an association between the food and the bell and had eventually developed a new form of behaviour. Pavlov, therefore, succeeded in establishing a link between neutral stimulus and the conditioned response (Rescorla, 2014). Keller andSchoenfeld (2014) highlight that researcher John B. Watson further explored the hypothesis put forward by Pavlov and attempted to understand the implications of the hypothesis for practice. Watson, in the year 1921, undertook research with Albert, an 11-month-old infant child to verify the significant hypothesis. The aim of the research was to suitably condition Albert to be afraid of a white rat. This was done with a jarring, and loud noise, that acted as the unconditioned stimulus. Initially, the subject showed no signs of fear when the rat was presented to him. However, when the pairing of the rat was done with the loud noise, it was found that there was a development of fear from the rats in Albert. It was therefore presented that the loud noise was responsible for inducing fear in Albert, that acted as the unconditioned response. The implications of this valuable experiment indicated that classical conditioning possesses the ability to create phobia in human beings. As opined by Gross (2014) Pavlov had been successful in contributing a rich pool of new information, ideas and concepts to the domain of behavioural psychology. The interest of other researchers to testify the hypothesis of Pavlov include the works of Edward Thorndike. However, it was John Watson who carried forward research on the hypothesis of classical conditioning. The contribution of Pavlov into the field of psychology has been attributed for being indirect. The connection of the proposed hypothesis of Pavlov to behavioural psychology was first established by Watson as he felt that the experiments undertaken by Pavlov were a sound example of a good experimental methodology that can be utilised for observing the conditioning process of any secretory reflex. One can state in this regard that once the hypothesis of Pavlov came into the world, there were attempts to put it on stronger grounds and conceive it to be true in all respects. Moodley (2016), reflecting on the encounters of different psychologists with the hypothesis of classical conditioning theory, argued that research of John Watson was the most important in the context of the same field. In a quest to research more on the hypothesis, Watson ut focus upon more brilliant aspects of behavioural psychology. Watson believed that behavioural psychology is sheerly an objective experimental segment of natural science, wherein the theoretical goal is the prediction of behaviour as well as control of behaviour. The ultimate impact of the research of Watson was that behaviourism was conceived to be the scientific study of human behaviour. In addition, behaviourism was thought to have the goal of providing the foundation ground for understanding how humans behave. Kalat (2016) in this regard stated that Watson strived to collect data for one of his experiment in a distinct manner. Data collection was done by taking observations of many infants, several hundred in number, from the time of birth, through first one month of infancy and through the initial years of childhood. From the collected data it was concluded that young children from a background of well-to-do as well as poor are not suitable as good subjects. The rationale for this is that the behaviours of such children are complex. Watson also conducted other experiments on behaviourism that he published consequently. Another important experiment that Watson carried out was on his perspective on learning behaviour of individuals. This was termed as the theory of habit formation that has been illustrated adequately in several kinds of literature. Watson considered putting in front of a three-year-old child a problem box. The habits of manipulation of the child were well known. The problem box could only be opened after completion of a certain action. Before the box was handed over to the child, it was shown to the child that the box contained many candies and he was told that he needed to open the box for having the candies. The situation presented to him was new. The formed manipulations that he had learnt earlier were not to work in such situation. The actions taken by the child involved picking the box, pounding it on the floor, dragging it round, pushing it against the hard board, turning it over and striking it with full force with his fist. In summation, the child carried out all the actions that he had learnt previously in similar situations. While trying to attempt to open the box, he accidently opened the box. One candy was given to him, and the box was again closed. The next time the boy was found to make fewer movements, and for the next time, there were fewer movements in comparison. After several attempts, he was able to open the box in almost two secon ds. Watson gave an explanation of the illustration of learning. He proposed that the ability of the box with increased accuracy and fewer movements were a function of recency and frequency. The acts that are performed more frequently usually persists within an individual. Watson identified nine hypothetical laws of learning. The first and second were recency and frequency. The third hypothesis was that conditioning is a major method of stimulu substitution. The fourth hypothesis was that the process of conditioning is ultimately ubiquitous. The fifth hypothesis was that conditioned responses have a tendency to be unstable and temporary. The sixth hypothesis was that substituted stimulus have chances of making other stimulus reflex. The seventh hypothesis was that the degree of response has a high amount of dependency on the strength the stimulus has. A summation effect of two stimuli can take place in certain cases. The last hypothesis was that conditioned responses could be attributed t o being extinguished. Neale (2017) has analysed that researchers who have examined the classical conditional theory of Pavlov and taken forward the research have put forward a number of criticisms of it. The researchers have opined that classical conditioning is a passive form of learning and it could be overcome with the help of cognitive factors. In the case of classical conditioning, it works best with natural reflexes and novel stimuli. A number of genetic predispositions can interfere with the principle of classical conditioning. In addition, the theory has been pointed out to be too simplistic and too deterministic. In addition, it does not consider individuals own cognition. The application of the theory to human beings have been a topic of debate, and therefore the number of opponents of the theory and the hypothesis of Pavlov has increased considerably. In words of Gershman et al., (2013) modern classical conditioning have been a major step in the way of bringing advancements in the work of Pavlov theory. Pavlov along with his contemporaries have viewed classical conditioning as a form of learning that originates from exposure of an organism to different associates of environmental occurrences. Modern classical conditioning theorists, such as R. Rescorla, have defined it in a more concise manner. The researcher puts emphasis on the principle that a temporal association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is, at no circumstances, adequate for the occurrence of Pavlovian conditioning. As an alternative, conditioned stimulus needs to have some relation with some facts of the unconditioned stimulus. The significance that this distinction holds is reflected in the experiment undertaken by scientist Kamin. In the valuable experiment conducted by him, he exposed rats to a certain tone followed by a shock. As per the conditioning principles, the tone acted as a conditioned response. The same set of rats were then exposed to the tone, followed by a light and then a shock. At this case, the light did not act as a conditioning agent. The reason for this was that the tone had already established a relation with the arrival of the shock. Therefore, the information brought about by the light was useless and did not contribute to the conditioning. Though there was a temporary association between shock and light, it failed to bring about any form of conditioning. Neisser (2014) has pointed out that ensuing research of Pavlov had the aim of discovering the laws responsible for governing the relationship between stimulus. The associations were considered to be conditioned reflexes for differentiating them from other forms of reflexes that are unconditioned. At the contemporary era, the means by which a relation is established between an unconditioned response and a conditioned stimulus is known as classical conditioning. The observations received from such associations were the starting point of experiments conducted on this topic with the similar hypothesis. The various experiments that were undertaken in the following times had to deal with the understanding of how the associations between the stimulus and the response were built, sustained, attenuated or strengthened. For the next two and half decades, several experiments were conducted in the laboratory of Pavlov along the discussed lines. The thirst of going deep into the topic was so much that a number of vague proposals came up and different individuals gave different opinions and viewpoints. Pavlov had described the term psychic stimulation of gastric secretion in his book named Die Arbiet der Verdauungsdrusen, the first description of natural conditioned reflex came up later in the works of another research Dr Tolochinov. A wide array of researches had been published after that, however, there was a lack of comprehensive reports on conditioned reflexes. James (2013) outlined some of the most critical concepts founded on the basis of the experiment of Pavlov. The first concept was about the way a conditioned reflex is developed. Other concepts were regarding experimental extinction, spontaneous recovery, higher order conditioning, generalisation and discrimination. Groome and Eysenck (2016) discussed about the works of Vladimir Bekhterev and his take on the hypothesis of classical conditioning of Pavlov. As per the researchers, Bekhterev had pointed out multiple flaws in the work of Pavlov and did not agree with the hypothesis. The first flaw pointed out was the use of the saliva method. This was due to the fact that the saliva method is not proper to be applied to humans. In contrast, the method used by Bekhterev for studying the conditioned reflex with the help of mild electrical stimulation for the examination of motor reflexes was successful in demonstrating the presence of the discussed reflex even in human beings. The use of acid for encouraging saliva in animals was also put under questions by Bekhterev. Lastly, Bekhterev criticised the secretory reflex to be unreliable and unimportant. In conclusion from the above analysis it can be stated that Pavlovs experiments on classical conditioning could dramatically demonstrate the control of the environment upon behaviour. The hypothesis that individuals are responsive to cues in the environment has been analysed by the different researchers in the consecutive researches after Pavlov. In fact, there is an involvement of classical conditioning in every aspect of our lives. Therefore, bringing changes in our environment would be an effective method of self-help. Changing reactions towards the environment is an approach founded on the basis of classical conditioning. If conditioning can have a major role in bringing development in certain human factors, conditioning has also been seen to eliminate the factors. From the chain of experiments undertaken by different researchers after Pavlov, it can be demonstrated that a hypothesis grows stronger with the process of analysing it and considering it for different situations. From the point, Pavlov had put forward the hypothesis of classical conditioning, with each passing phase of further research the hypothesis has only grown stronger and has been supported by several proofs and direct and indirect evidence. Concepts from Pavlovian hypothesis have been found to have a number of ramifications. The hypothesis has been time and again considered for explaining many multi-faceted puzzling facades of behaviour exhibited by humans. 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